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Political management: structure and types. What is political management

Political management: structure and types. What is political management

Political management is one of the most important tools for purposeful, conscious, systematic regulation of the system of social relations, as well as the search for new ways to include people and their interests in the process of transforming life. Today's political manager must not only organize and coordinate the activities of various state, political or public organizational structures to realize their mission, but also make socially significant decisions and implement them in such a way that it does not destroy, but helps the life of the whole society or its individual communities.

The urgency of the problem of political management is determined, however, not only by the actual situation, but in many respects by the crisis of the science of society generated by it, which has not bypassed political science.

Purpose of work: to consider the main directions of development of political management in modern conditions.

Research objectives:

Reveal the general characteristics of political management and public administration in modern conditions;

Analyze the essence and features of political management; identify the role of management in modern conditions.

The degree of scientific development of the problem. The problem of political management in the broad sense of the word has always been in the center of attention of scientists since the birth of political philosophy. The basis for the study of trends in modern political management was laid by the works of G. Almond, D. Bell, M. Weber, A. Giddens, R. Dahrendorf and others.

A fundamentally important event for the development of the theory and practice of political management was the use of the achievements of classical management, formed in the works of F. Taylor, A. Fayol, G. Emerson, L. Urwick, E. Mayo, P. Drucker, G. Simon, A. Etzioni , L. Bertalanffy and others. Such areas as "social management", "innovative management", "strategic management" and "political management" have emerged in modern literature. The problems of political management can be seen especially clearly in the literature on political and administrative management, which reflects the study of network and various managerial approaches related to the development of the concept of "new public management". Western political science has made a significant contribution to the development of issues of reforming political management in accordance with the requirements of a post-industrial society.

In domestic science, the consideration of the problems of political management is greatly influenced by the tradition of the Soviet period, when the political was identified with the state and was reduced to the issue of exercising power. In the context of the formation of a modern political system in the country and regions, the problem of political management remains new, relevant and increasingly attracts the attention of Russian scientists. Many Russian scientists were engaged in the study of control theory, including G.V. Atamanchuk, A.N. Galkin, Gelman V.Ya., N.I. Glazunova, A.M. Omarov and others.

Chapter 1. Characteristics of political management and public administration

Political management: concept, essence, features

Management is inherent in all organized systems: physical, biological, social. With its help, the integrity of these systems is achieved, their qualitative specificity is preserved, reproduction and development is carried out. The main feature of social, including political systems is the presence of two types of management in them. The first type of management is systemic, it represents objectively operating social mechanisms or processes that encourage people to reproduce system elements, structures, and functional connections in their actions. Within the framework of the political system, such main processes-mechanisms are political socialization, institutionalization, legitimation, within the framework of a separate political organization - mutual role expectations, group norms and value orientations. 1

In practice, system management looks like the subordination of people to society, culture, external and internalized, i.e. deeply assimilated personality, norms, rules, values. This type of management is also called the self-organization of the system, thereby emphasizing the presence in each system, including the political one, of internal mechanisms that ensure its reproduction.

The specificity of social systems - societies, institutions, organizations, groups - is the presence in them of the second type of management, which exists in the form of a conscious directed activity of people pursuing their own goals, able to create structures, make decisions and influence each other. The presence of this type of governance distinguishes social systems from all others. It introduces subjectivity into management relations, makes them more complex, depending not only on system requirements, but also on the individual characteristics of the people involved in the management process.

This subjectivity is both a strength and a weakness of social governance. Its strength lies in the fact that a person is able not only to reproduce previously established connections in the system, but also to change them, improve, initiate innovations, and accelerate development. His weakness lies in the inevitable mistakes of a person, and most importantly, in the perseverance that he can show when implementing erroneous managerial decisions.

In the future, we will talk about management not as a systemic property of self-organizing complexes, but as a conscious impact carried out by a person or a group of people (the subject of management) on the object of management (another person or group of people) in order to achieve certain goals. In other words, we will consider management as subject-object relations, as real interactions of people, as a series of events in the course of which choices and decisions are made, efforts are made to implement them, resistance to these decisions is made, or unquestioning obedience is carried out. 2

Management related to the sphere of politics includes the entire set of management processes that arise in the field of political power relations. The following main types of management in politics can be distinguished:

a) management relations that arise between public officials and state bodies acting as a subject of management, on the one hand, and the population or its individual groups, on the other. This type of government is usually called public administration, because its subject is the state, its institutions and officials. It distinguishes as a special segment - public administration, which includes the whole variety of administrative activities carried out by executive authorities (government, ministries, departments and other state institutions).

The main feature of state administration is that it is based on the right of “legitimate violence”, i.e. the subject of management has the authority, the necessary status resources for the implementation of management decisions. In modern society, public administration is carried out mainly in the form of the creation by the relevant bodies and institutions of norms that are depersonalized in nature and exist in the form of laws and other general regulations. Public administration in modern society is multi-level and extremely complex, primarily due to the unusually expanded number of various state organizations and institutions.

b) managerial relations that develop within state and political organizations in order to streamline their activities, increase work efficiency. Its peculiarity is that managerial relations are limited to the framework of individual organizations (state institutions, political parties, etc.), which gives this type of management many similarities with the management of economic organizations. Management in state institutions and political organizations is also based on the ability of the subject of management (the leadership of a state institution, the leading bodies of the party) to rely on status resources, on the right to create norms that are generally binding on members of this organization.

c) managerial relations, where the subject (political organization, pressure group, statesman) cannot rely on the right of “legitimate violence” and on his status resources to achieve the set goals, cannot adopt a law or other order that becomes binding, and therefore forced to resort to other forms and methods of influencing the intended object of control. We will call this type of managerial relations political management or political-technological management. 3

Political-technological management allows political actors to solve very specific tasks. Let's name some of them:

Creating an attractive image of a government agency, political party, public organization or pressure group.

Expansion of the number of supporters of a particular political program, management project.

Formation of electoral preferences of the population.

Organization of political unions, blocs.

Influence on political opponents, as well as on opponents in political conflicts.

Influence on persons making state decisions.

Mobilization of the masses for political support.

The importance of these tasks for various subjects operating in the field of political relations is obvious. In modern society, it is impossible to achieve significant political results if at least some of these tasks are not solved in everyday practice. But the specificity of all these tasks lies in the fact that for their implementation the subject of management cannot use power, cannot issue a decree or adopt a law, cannot resort to coercion, he must induce action. The object of managerial influence in this case is outside the zone of status subordination: he is not obliged (by law, by establishment, by status) to love or hate the political leader; in the secret voting booth he is free to choose; he may join any political organization permitted in the country; he cannot be forced to refrain from spreading rumors about the arbitrariness of the bureaucracy in this or that state institution, etc.

So, political management is a special type of management in politics, when the subject of management, striving to achieve a certain goal, is deprived of the opportunity to create generally binding norms and rely on the right of "legitimate violence", i.e. either to the right of state coercion, or to a status right in a political organization.

Knowledge of the mechanisms of political control is a condition for survival in the modern world.

Considering the diversity of socio-political disciplines, it should be noted that, as educational practice shows, teaching most disciplines is not limited to expounding their foundations, but has a clear inclination, especially in political science, to topics in applied political science, which allows you to essentially remove concerns about eclecticism.

Of course, it is still too early to say that future engineering graduates will work in political consulting firms, but nevertheless, today none of these agencies can do without the help of engineers.

Political management is one of the types of managerial relations in politics that allows solving such tasks as strengthening the authority of a statesman or political figure: creating favorable conditions for the activities of a state institution or political party by constructing an attractive image in the mass consciousness, the formation of electoral preferences of the population; creation of political unions and blocs; influencing opponents in political conflicts, etc. The significance of these tasks is not in doubt even for a person who is not experienced in politics. Obviously, in order to effectively govern the country, its leaders must enjoy authority among citizens, that in order to win elections, you need to win sympathy

^ and ^ and and V I V

voters; in order to get out of a political conflict situation with dignity, one must be able to influence one's rivals.

The listed political tasks cannot be solved by traditional management methods - by making binding decisions, by creating norms, rules or laws, by forcing people to comply with the decisions taken by managers. Is it possible to issue a decree obliging citizens to respect and love their president? Is forceful pressure on voters in democratic countries conceivable? World practice more and more convincingly shows that even in the resolution of political conflicts one cannot rely solely on force, other methods and methods of influencing the opposite side are also needed.

A feature of political management is that within its framework, the subject of management, striving to achieve its goals, does not use the right of legitimate violence, the status resources of political power, it does not engage in rule-making, does not create laws and other generally binding regulations. He uses specific techniques and methods, achieving such changes in the views and behavior of many people that are in his interests and

his political goals.

The type of managerial relations described above in the most general terms has existed in political practice for a long time. It can be said that it is as old as politics itself. The ruler of any state has always sought to increase his authority, and his advisers actively helped him solve this problem. When solving state affairs, there have always been situations when the most far-sighted politicians preferred to act not by force, but by cunning, not forcing, but seducing the masses. The work of the great Florentine thinker N. Machiavelli "The Sovereign" can be considered as one of the early manuals on practical political management, because this book provides specific advice to the ruler, who cares about his authority or, speaking more broadly and in modern language, about his image.

However, until the middle of the twentieth century, political management existed only as a practice of political management.

In order for political management to turn into a science capable of supplying interested people with knowledge that makes it possible to solve, on a fundamentally different basis, the tasks of constructing the image of a political figure, forming electoral preferences, creating a favorable information environment for a political organization, etc., there had to be serious changes in the system of scientific social knowledge. The development of sociology, psychology, political science, management sciences has created the prerequisites for the transition from the notion of political management as the lot of dodgy loners to the notion that political management can become an object of scientific knowledge, the development of which should help achieve various political goals.

Political management in modern society is represented by various types of management activities: organizing and conducting an election campaign, political image-making, making political alliances, finding ways out of a conflict situation, lobbying, etc. Each type of political management has its own specifics in building a management strategy and tactics. However, all these types are united by the fact that the subject of management, striving to achieve a certain political goal, is deprived of the opportunity to create universally binding norms and rely on the right of "legitimate violence", he is forced or considers it more accurate and correct to apply special techniques and methods for solving his tasks, to use various political technologies. Thus, despite the differences in political goals, all types of political management are based on some general trends and principles for organizing managerial interaction.

Management is an important and integral part of the political life of society. Management allows you to solve both large-scale tasks of coordinating political, economic and social processes in society, as well as smaller ones aimed at achieving specific goals and objectives, such as gaining the trust of the masses, winning elections, resolving conflict situations, etc. Managerial relations in politics are diverse. In this chapter, we have to get acquainted with the features of political management and the place that it occupies in the life of modern society.

In order to better understand what place political management occupies in the system of political management, let us first single out its most general types. The first type of management in politics is substantive. It represents objectively operating social mechanisms or processes that encourage people to reproduce system elements, social structures, functional connections in their actions. With the help of substantive management, the integrity of the political system is achieved, its qualitative specificity is preserved, its reproduction and development are carried out. Within the framework of the political system, such main processes-mechanisms are political socialization, institutionalization, legitimation. In practice, substantive management looks like the subordination of people to the norms and rules adopted in a given society, as an orientation towards the values of culture, including political ones.

The relational type of management (from the French ge!aIop - relation) exists in the form of subject-object relations, when it is possible to clearly distinguish those who manage and those who are the object of management, i.e. must comply with management decisions. The presence of this type of management distinguishes social systems from all others, because it exists in the form of a conscious, directed activity of people pursuing their own goals, able to make decisions and influence each other, and therefore, it depends on the individual characteristics of the people involved in the management process. .

This feature of the relational type of management is both its strength and its weakness. Its strength lies in the fact that a person is able not only to reproduce previously established connections in the system, but also to change them, improve, initiate innovations, and accelerate development. His weakness lies in the inevitable mistakes of a person, and most importantly, in the perseverance that he can show when implementing erroneous managerial decisions.

The main feature of public administration is that it is based on the right of "legitimate violence", i.e. the subject of management has the authority, the necessary status resources for the implementation of management decisions. In modern society, public administration is carried out mainly through normative regulation, i.e. through the development and adoption by the relevant bodies and institutions of laws, decrees, orders and other normative acts. Public administration in modern society is multi-level and extremely complex, primarily due to the unusually expanded number of various state organizations and institutions.

In order to better understand the specifics of political management, we first clarify what political goals are set and what tasks are solved within its framework.

1. Strengthening the authority of a state or political figure. Authority for a politician is significance in the eyes of the population, it is the trust and support of the broad masses, it is success in politics, it is an opportunity to implement various political tasks. Even Niccolo Machiavelli wrote: "If the sovereign relies entirely on fate, he cannot withstand its blows." And the great Florentine is developing a whole program of actions aimed at increasing the authority of the ruler. Modern politicians, especially those whose powers are determined during elections, perhaps even more need the support of the population, so for many of them this task is extremely important.

2. Creation of favorable conditions for the activities of a state institution, political party, public organization by constructing an attractive image in the mass consciousness. Any state institution is interested in the fact that citizens see it as a competent body of state administration. Only in this case, his managerial decisions will be perceived in society as important, as requiring execution. Each political organization, in order to win in a sharply competitive political struggle, needs the support of voters, but for this it needs the masses to see in this organization a consistent defender of their interests, to trust it. That is why it is almost impossible for political organizations to seriously count on political success without solving this problem.

3. Expansion of the number of supporters of a particular state or political program, political project. A common place in discussions about political, economic and social reforms in our society has become the thesis about the difficulties of implementing managerial decisions. One of the main reasons for this is the resistance of the masses, frightened by the transformations and more than once deceived, to innovative programs and projects. Therefore, it is necessary not only to work out in detail the nature and sequence of regulatory and legal changes, but also to influence the perception of these changes, to influence people's expectations, their value orientations and moods. Awareness of this need leads to the transformation of this task into one of the important areas of activity for all subjects of politics in modern societies.

4. Formation of electoral preferences of the population. Elections to state bodies are an integral feature of democracy. Practically all political forces and parties have already understood the enormous significance of this task. Tough competition forces them to constantly improve the technology of fighting for votes.

5. Creation of political unions, blocs. The policy of alliances and agreements helps political actors to solve complex problems.

However, the achievement of each political union is the result of complex and painstaking work to influence one's future partners, where practically nothing is solved through the use of force, but skillful maneuvering, a jeweled impact on the motivation of potential allies, is required.

6. Influence on political opponents, as well as on opponents in political conflicts. The political conflict is distinguished by the intransigence of the parties, often aggressiveness and a clear unwillingness to play by common rules. Political conflicts destabilize society, sow enmity between its participants, and paralyze the economic and social development of the country. That is why it is so important to find ways to resolve political conflicts. A way out of the conflict cannot be ensured by forceful methods.

This requires the use of special technologies for managing conflict situations.

7. Influencing decision makers. Modern societies are extremely differentiated, with various social groups striving for articulation and protection of their interests. One of the ways to defend group interests is to organize pressure on state bodies and public officials. The forms and methods of such pressure are diverse, they are constantly being improved. And no matter how we treat this phenomenon of modern political life, it is a reality that cannot be ignored.

8. Mobilization of the masses for political support. To solve specific political problems, political actors often require a demonstration of mass support, for example, holding pickets, protests, rallies, marches, etc. The organization of mass demonstrations is relevant not only for the opposition, but also for the ruling forces, if the latter wish to show the level of people's trust in the policy being pursued. In a democratic society, people cannot be forced to take to the streets, but they can be persuaded, encouraged to do so. That is why this task belongs to the sphere of political management.

The importance of the listed tasks for various subjects,

Operating in the field of political relations is obvious. In modern society, it is impossible to achieve significant political results if at least some of these tasks are not solved in everyday practice.

The specificity of all these tasks lies in the fact that for their implementation the subject of management cannot use power, cannot issue a decree or adopt a law, cannot resort to coercion. The object of managerial influence is outside the zone of status subordination to the subject of management, i.e. he is not obliged (by law, by establishment, by status) to love or hate a political leader, in the secret voting booth he is free in his choice, he cannot be forced to refrain from spreading rumors about the arbitrariness of the bureaucracy in this or that state institution, he can join to any political organization permitted in the country, etc.

We have already said that within the framework of political management, the subject of management cannot resort to violence, is deprived of the right to create generally binding norms and apply sanctions to those who do not comply with them, he must use such methods of influencing people in order to change their behavior, which exclude the use of direct coercion, physical violence. This is the specificity of political technologies.

Political technologies are a means of skillfully influencing people's motivation, their consciousness and subconsciousness, these are ways that encourage people to act in accordance with the interests of a political subject, but at the same time maintain their sense of freedom of their choice, the naturalness of their actions. These techniques ensure the introduction of new ideas, values into the mass consciousness, the formation of new attitudes, beliefs, and among them there are many that can be called manipulative.

So, political management is a special type of management in politics, when the subject of management, striving to achieve a certain political goal, is deprived of the opportunity to create generally binding norms and rely on the right of "legitimate violence" and therefore is forced to apply special techniques and methods for solving their problems, use a variety of political technologies.

Political management has been around for a long time. In almost all historical societies, the rulers were forced to solve the problem of increasing their authority, expanding their influence on the general population, and competing groups and clans were always looking for ways to effectively influence their leaders, kings and emperors. However, only in modern society does political management acquire a large-scale character. This is due to a number of important processes that developed rapidly in the 10th-20th centuries.

A feature of modern industrially developed democratic societies is their entry into the postmodern stage, which is distinguished not only by a change in the socio-political conditions of life, but also by serious shifts in the system of value orientations. A study of dozens of modern countries, conducted under the guidance of the American scientist R. Inglehart, led to the conclusion that "an important component of the postmodern shift is a shift that leads to a decrease in the significance of any kind of power and authority." The revealed trend of a sharp decrease in the action of the so-called authoritarian reflex in stable democracies further contributed to the actualization of politicians' interest in special forms and methods of influencing the masses.

The process of democratization of society found its expression in the affirmation of the principle of separation of powers, in the election of the main state bodies, in the equality of all citizens before the law, in the priority of human rights over the rights of the state, in a multi-party system, etc. The development of democracy led to a sharp narrowing of institutional opportunities for arbitrariness and violence on the part of the authorities. Being limited by the law in their actions, public officials and other political figures could not help but turn to the theory and practice of political management to strengthen their authority and influence, to implement their plans and decisions.

Political management in its modern form owes much to election campaigns. In the course of the election campaign, technologies for influencing the masses were created and perfected. After all, no matter how blasphemous it sounds, but the mass, capable of influencing the choice of a particular candidate, had to be managed so that it did not notice the guiding influence, so that every person who came to the polling station always had the feeling that he was acting independently that his choice is free. Election campaign management is one of the most popular types of political management.

In the 20th century, major changes are taking place in the life of many societies. The processes of democratization, the limitation of the actions of senior state officials by law, the proclamation of the inviolability of the rights and freedoms of the individual, the change in the value of the orientation of the population, the entry into the political arena of parties and other socio-political organizations require serious adjustments in the ways of achieving political goals. The previously widespread methods of state, coercion, outright violence no longer correspond to the new realities.

The contradiction between the objectively urgent need to reduce the share in the policy of explicit forms of violence and coercion, on the one hand, and the need to provide; effective management of the affairs of society, harmonization of the interest of various social groups and strata - on the other. In such a situation, there could not have been an increase in the interest of various political forces in a special type of managerial relations.

to political management.

Political management made it possible to solve political problems without physical violence, made it possible to improve the efficiency of public administration without the repressive mechanism of sanctions (Fig. 1). The development of electronic media created additional technical possibilities for this.

Currently, we can talk about the following main types of political management: political image-making, political PR, electoral management, political branding, regulation of political conflicts, lobbying, political alliances and agreements. Let's briefly describe each of them:

Political image-making (from the English image - image and making - creation, production) is one of the oldest types of political management. Even in historically early societies, the image of the ruler was carefully created and guarded by his advisers. The main task of this type of political management is to make the image of this or that politician, statesman attractive to the masses, which would ensure the support of the population for his actions.

Electoral management occupies a special place among other types of political management. Its main purpose is the organization and conduct of election campaigns. Since elections to state bodies are held regularly in democratic countries, and competition in these elections is extremely intense, the interest of politicians in electoral management is increased. This circumstance is also reflected in the literature: many times more scientific and journalistic works are devoted to the organization and conduct of election campaigns than to any other type of political management.

Political branding (brand - trademark), or the introduction into the mass consciousness of recognizable symbols, meanings, images that, in accordance with the goals of the subject of political management, can unite, unite people or, on the contrary, divide them into rival groups. A political brand is a kind of marker that allows using one word, phrase or symbols to indicate that people belong to a particular political group and the place they occupy in the political space. For example, such marker words as "communists", "democrats", allowed Russians at the end of the 20th century to divide society into those who advocated the renewal of the country, and those who opposed this renewal.

Political brands, with their skillful promotion, turn into symbols that unite people, so we can say that the main meaning of political branding as a type of political management is the formation of political identity in the interests of the subject of management.

The regulation of political conflicts requires special skills and abilities. This type of political management is focused on finding ways and means to reduce political confrontation and "political tension in society.

Lobbying activity aimed at influencing public officials in order to make a decision in the interests of the lobbying group has all the features of political management and is one of its types: The lobbying group intrudes into the sphere of political power relations, but does not have the status resources of power , the legal right to dictate their will to the ruling subjects. She is forced to look for specific ways and methods of influencing the motivation of decision makers.

We single out as a special kind of political management the policy pursued by various parties in order to create alliances and reach agreements with other organizations. The policy of alliances and agreements has its own characteristics, therefore this type of political management cannot be reduced to any of the others previously mentioned.

One of the important types of political management in modern conditions is political PR. (PR - public relations (English), or public relations. We use the adjective "political" in the singular, because the English abbreviation PR is pronounced as "PR", and the use of the plural with this word is not accepted. Since the concept Since “political PR” is interpreted ambiguously, below we will dwell in more detail on the origin of this term and its interpretation.

Section VI.

2. The structure of political management.

3. Background and history of the formation of political management.

4. Certain types of political management. Political image-making and political branding.

1. Political management: concept, place in the structure of political management

In the previous lectures of the course, we have established that the structure political management includes three complementary elements:

1. Management relations arising between public officials and bodies acting as the subject of management, on the one hand, and the population or its individual groups, on the other (public administration).

2. Management relations that develop within state and political organizations in order to streamline their activities, increase work efficiency.

3. Managerial relations in which the subject cannot rely on the right of legitimate violence and on his status resources to achieve political goals (political management).

The essence of political management (PM) and its differences from other types of political management are fixed in the definition proposed by G.V. Pushkareva:

“Political management is a special type of management in politics, when the subject of management, striving to achieve a certain political goal, is deprived of the opportunity to create generally binding norms and rely on the right of “legitimate violence” and therefore is forced to apply special techniques and methods for solving their problems, use a variety of political technologies» .

Feature of political management technologies:

Political technologies how specific methods of political management are aimed at encouraging people to act in accordance with the interests of the political subject while maintaining their sense of freedom of choice. To the extent that this task is realized, political technologies can be considered effective.

A different version of the definition of political management is offered by I.V. Tikhomirov and V.B. Tikhomirov (Political management // Political Encyclopedia: In 2 volumes):

"Political management - management of political events, focused on the implementation of certain political interests of certain participants in these events. Events are considered as the results of political activity, its products.

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From the point of view of the definition of the concept, political management is one of the ways to carry out managerial functions in politics. And the difference between such institutions as political management and political management is as follows: the methods of political management, unlike the state, do not involve the use of means of state coercion. Thus, the subject of management cannot rely on the right of legitimate coercion and does not have the ability to create norms that are generally binding. The political goal of the subject of management is to change the political situation in the country.

Functions of political management:

work to strengthen the authority of a political or statesman;
increase in the number of supporters of a certain political program;
influence on the electoral views of the population;
work on the attractiveness of the image of a political party or public organization;
creation of political blocs and unions;
impact on opponents with whom the subject of political management is in conflict, as well as on persons who have the right to make government decisions.

At the same time, the object to which the influence is directed is completely free in its will, it is not obliged to sympathize or, conversely, have a negative attitude towards the subject of control.

1. Image-making, that is, the creation of a certain image of a political subject, work on a positive image. Image-making can be both individual and collective. In the first case, it is about creating a positive image of a particular person. As an example of image-making in the countries of the post-Soviet space, one can cite the desire of the leaders of right-wing parties to dress in national costumes, make appropriate hairstyles, etc. Although this is only the tip of the iceberg, since the creation of the image includes the dissemination of opinions about the family and personal values of the leader and much, much more.

Collective or corporate image-making involves the formation of a positive image of the party in the minds of the masses. The use of this technique can be seen in the pre-election videos of political parties: a common plot, the use of messages common to all, even the color scheme for each scene.

2. Electoral technologies - systemic methods of organizing an election campaign. They imply the provision of a complex impact on voters.

3. Technology of a political union - an association of supporters and opponents of a political force or leader. The result of using this technology is the emergence of blocks in the legislature and outside these bodies. Very often this kind of political management manifests itself on the eve of the next elections.

4. The technology of resolving a political conflict is to find a way out of a political confrontation or reduce tension in it. May include preferential treatment one or another side of the conflict, in search of a compromise.

5. Lobbying - work that is aimed at influencing those who have the right to make management decisions.

Thus, we can conclude that the methodology for implementing the functions of political management is very specific. After all, the subject cannot rely on state coercion, apply certain obligatory sanctions. The success of a party or a public association in the political arena depends on how effective political management is.

Chapter I

PLACE AND ROLE

POLITICAL MANAGEMENT

IN MODERN SOCIETY

What is political management?

In order to better understand what place political management occupies in the system of political management, let us first single out its most general types. The first type of management in politics is substantive. It represents objectively operating social mechanisms or processes that encourage people to reproduce system elements, social structures, functional connections in their actions. With the help of substantive management, the integrity of the political system is achieved, its qualitative specificity is preserved, its reproduction and development are carried out. Within the framework of the political system, such main processes-mechanisms are political socialization, institutionalization, legitimation (1). In practice, substantive management looks like the subordination of people to the norms and rules adopted in a given society, as an orientation towards the values of culture, including political ones.

The relational type of management (from the French ge1ation - relation) exists in the form of subject-object relations, when it is possible to clearly distinguish those who manage and those who are the object of management, i.e. must comply with management decisions. The presence of this type of management distinguishes social systems from all others, because it exists in the form of a conscious, directed activity of people pursuing their own goals, able to make decisions and influence each other, and therefore, it depends on the individual characteristics of the people involved in the management process. .

In politics, management as a subject-object relationship exists in three main types:

a) management relations that arise between public officials and state bodies acting as a subject of management, on the one hand, and the population or its individual groups, on the other. This kind of control
usually called public administration, because its subject is the state, its institutions and officials. It distinguishes public administration as a special segment, including the whole variety of administrative activities carried out by executive authorities (government, ministries, departments and other state institutions).

b) managerial relations that develop within state and political organizations in order to streamline their activities, increase work efficiency. Their peculiarity is that managerial relations are limited to the framework of individual organizations (state institutions, political parties, etc.), which gives this type of management many similarities with the management of economic organizations. Management in state institutions and political organizations is also based on the ability of the subject of management (the leadership of a state institution, the leading bodies of the party) to rely on status resources, on the right to create norms that are generally binding for members of this organization and apply sanctions against those who violate these norms;

c) managerial relations, where the subject (political organization, pressure group, statesman) cannot rely on the right of “legitimate violence” and on his status resources to achieve political goals, cannot adopt a law or other order that becomes binding, and therefore forced to resort to other forms and methods of influencing the intended object of control. This type of management relationship we will call political management.

In order to better understand the specifics of political management, we first clarify what political goals are set and what tasks are solved within its framework.

1. Strengthening the authority of a statesman or politician. Authority for a politician is significance in the eyes of the population, it is the trust and support of the broad masses, it is success in politics, it is an opportunity to implement various political tasks. Even Niccolò Machiavelli wrote: “If the sovereign relies entirely on fate, he cannot withstand its blows” (2). And the great Florentine is developing a whole program of actions aimed at increasing the authority of the ruler. Modern politicians, especially those whose powers are determined during elections, perhaps even more need the support of the population, so for many of them this task is extremely important.

3. Expansion of the number of supporters of a particular state or political program, political project. The thesis about the difficulties of implementing managerial decisions has become a common place for discussions about political, economic and social reforms in our society. One of the main reasons for this is the resistance of the masses, frightened by the transformations and more than once deceived, to innovative programs and projects. Therefore, it is necessary not only to work out in detail the nature and sequence of normative and legal changes, but also to influence the perception of these changes, to influence people's expectations, their value orientations and moods. Awareness of this need leads to the transformation of this task into one of the important areas of activity for all subjects of politics in modern societies.

4. Formation of electoral preferences of the population. Elections to state bodies are an integral feature of democracy. Practically all political forces and parties have already understood the enormous significance of this task. Tough competition forces them to constantly improve the technology of fighting for votes.

5. Creation of political unions, blocs. The policy of alliances and agreements helps political actors to solve complex problems. However, the achievement of each political union is the result of complex and painstaking work to influence one's future partners, where practically nothing is solved through the use of force, but skillful maneuvering, a jeweled impact on the motivation of potential allies, is required.

6. Influence on political opponents, as well as on opponents in political conflicts. The political conflict is distinguished by the intransigence of the parties, often aggressiveness and a clear unwillingness to play by common rules. Political conflicts destabilize society, sow enmity between its participants, and paralyze the economic and social development of the country. That is why it is so important to find ways to resolve political conflicts. A way out of the conflict cannot be ensured by forceful methods. This requires the use of special technologies for managing conflict situations.

7. Influencing decision makers. Modern societies are extremely differentiated, they are represented by various social groups striving for articulation and protection of their interests. One of the ways to defend group interests is to organize pressure on state bodies and public officials. The forms and methods of such pressure are diverse, they are constantly being improved. And, no matter how we treat this phenomenon of modern political life, it is a reality that cannot be ignored.

8. Mobilization of the masses for political support. To solve specific political problems, political actors often require a demonstration of mass support, for example, holding pickets, protests, rallies, marches, etc. The organization of mass demonstrations is relevant not only for the opposition, but also * for the ruling forces, if the latter wish to show the level of people's trust in the policy being pursued. In a democratic society, people cannot be forced to take to the streets, but they can be persuaded, encouraged to do so. That is why this task belongs to the sphere of political management.

Thus, political management differs from public administration and management in public institutions and political organizations in the following ways:

First, in political management, the subject of management is deprived of the right . a) rely on state coercion, apply measures of influence against violators of laws or orders of the executive and judicial authorities, which is available to subjects of state administration; b) to resort to the application of sanctions, as the heads of state institutions or political organizations can do in relation to their subordinates. Consequently, the methods of influence of the subject of political management on the controlled object must be very specific, have special forms of influence on the motivational structure of the personality;

Secondly, state administration and administration in state and political organizations (if we are not talking about the arbitrariness of individuals) is built mainly on the principle of rule-making. In other words, state bodies or officials are empowered to adopt laws, decrees, other normative acts that are binding on the relevant groups of the population, and they use the mechanism of sanctions to direct people's activities in line with the accepted norms. As a result, management acquires a largely impersonal character, management decisions are guided not so much by specific people as by a certain understanding of what should be the general, if possible, the most optimal models of social behavior, reproduced in the actions of many people, since, in principle, almost all or at least the majority, can be inserted to obey the accepted law. In political management, the subject of management is deprived of the legitimate right to create norms that are obligatory for the object of his influence, therefore he is forced to influence, impose his own rules of the game, based on knowledge of the characteristics of the motivation of specific people, the psychology of the individual and the psychology of the masses.

Thirdly, very specific tasks are solved within the framework of political management. The solution of these problems helps political subjects to strengthen their positions in the political arena, win the competition, and increase their influence on the masses. Obviously, these tasks are very important for political actors seeking to expand their sphere of influence on society, to implement their plans, political programs and projects. However, the attitude of the population to these tasks will always be ambiguous, because behind them personal ambitions, group interests, selfish goals appear. That is why these tasks are usually not advertised. It is hardly possible to imagine a political campaign where the openly declared goal would be to increase the authority of the president or the prestige of some ministry, lobby for tax breaks for a financial-industrial corporation, or influence political allies.

Fourthly, within the framework of political management, special techniques and methods for solving managerial problems are formed. The totality of such methods is called political technologies.

There are two approaches to the definition of the concept of "political technologies" in the literature. Supporters of the first view political technologies as a universal component of any managerial process in politics. So, in the "Political Encyclopedia" it is indicated that political technologies "are a way of streamlining expedient practical activities, a set of techniques aimed at transforming (changing the state) of an object in the field of politics, achieving a given result (goal)" (3). A definition similar in content is given by A.I. Solovyov: "Political technologies are a set of consistently applied procedures, techniques and methods of activity aimed at the most optimal and effective implementation of the goals and objectives of a particular subject at a certain time and in a certain place" (4).

Proponents of a different approach, and the author is one of them, are inclined to believe that political technologies are one of the types of managerial technologies in politics, inherent exclusively in political management. The technologies that are taking shape in the system of public administration and in the system of administration in state and political organizations have a number of distinctive features, and mixing them with purely political technologies will not allow us to see the specifics of the latter.

We have already said that within the framework of political management, the subject of management cannot resort to violence, is deprived of the right to create generally binding norms and apply sanctions to those who do not comply with them, he must use such methods of influencing
people in order to change their behavior, which exclude the use of direct coercion, physical violence. This is the specificity of political technologies.

Political technologies are a means of skillfully influencing people's motivation, their consciousness and subconsciousness, these are ways that encourage people to act in accordance with the interests of a political subject, but at the same time they maintain a sense of freedom of their choice, the naturalness of their actions. These techniques ensure the introduction of new ideas, values into the mass consciousness, the formation of new attitudes, beliefs, and among them there are many that can be called manipulative.

Looking ahead, let's say that political management poses many complex ethical problems for society, which are based on the mismatch of group and public interests, intense competition in the political space, differences in ideological views and value orientations of political subjects and the constant temptation to solve their political problems by any means. . We will talk about this in more detail in the final chapter.

Political management: structure and types. What is political management

Chapter 1. Characteristics of political management and public administration

Political management: concept, essence, features